Article · Economy
The history of the world economy in 2,000 years
For most of the last two thousand years, income per person barely moved: all 4,387 estimates the Maddison Project has for 35 countries before 1820 lie between $295 and $5,118 a person a year, in 2011 dollars. Then came the hockey stick: from 1820 to 2022 world GDP per person rose ×14.8, to $16,677, while the number of people grew ×7.5.
World GDP per person, 2022
$16,677
×14.8 since 1820 ($1,128), in 2011 dollars
People in the world, 2022
7.8B
×7.5 since 1820, when there were 1.04B
World output since 1820
×111
from $1.18T to $130T a year, in 2011 dollars
The UK's first doubling of income per person
452 years
from 1252 to 1704; the latest, to ×16, took 43 years
China and India: share of world output, 2022
29%
45% in 1820, only 9% in 1950
Two thousand years in one line
Before 1820 the Maddison Project has no figure for the whole world — only estimates for 35 countries, most of them in Europe and Asia: 14 for the year 1 (the Mediterranean and the Middle East, from $886 to $1,407 a person), 11 for 1500, 17 for 1700. Rough as they are, they tell one story: income per person stayed within a narrow band for centuries. The lowest estimate is $295 (Cuba, 1690); the highest, $5,118 (the Netherlands, 1618).
From 1820, when the database's world figures begin, world GDP per person rose from $1,128 to $16,677 in 2022: ×14.8, or 1.3% a year for 202 years. The United Kingdom, with the longest yearly series, went from $1,320 in 1252 to $38,407: ×29.1.
On an ordinary scale, two thousand years make a hockey stick: a handle of some 1,819 years lying almost flat, then a blade of 202 years. The log scale shows the same numbers as rates of growth: the slow rise of the richest pre-industrial economies becomes visible, and so does how much faster everything after 1820 was.
WorldCountry estimates before 1820Eras
The world since 1820 as a table
| Year | GDP per person | People | World output |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1820 | $1,128 | 1.04B | $1.18T |
| 1850 | $1,300 | 1.19B | $1.55T |
| 1870 | $1,543 | 1.27B | $1.96T |
| 1900 | $2,265 | 1.55B | $3.5T |
| 1920 | $2,493 | 1.94B | $4.82T |
| 1940 | $3,413 | 2.24B | $7.65T |
| 1950 | $3,360 | 2.52B | $8.46T |
| 1960 | $4,404 | 3.03B | $13.3T |
| 1970 | $5,971 | 3.67B | $21.9T |
| 1980 | $7,239 | 4.42B | $32T |
| 1990 | $8,211 | 5.24B | $43T |
| 2000 | $9,904 | 6.05B | $59.9T |
| 2010 | $13,122 | 6.84B | $89.8T |
| 2015 | $14,713 | 7.26B | $107T |
| 2016 | $15,029 | 7.35B | $110T |
| 2017 | $15,416 | 7.43B | $115T |
| 2018 | $15,815 | 7.51B | $119T |
| 2019 | $16,091 | 7.59B | $122T |
| 2020 | $15,461 | 7.67B | $119T |
| 2021 | $16,283 | 7.74B | $126T |
| 2022 | $16,677 | 7.8B | $130T |
From centuries to decades: how long income took to double
The United Kingdom's income per person took 452 years to double for the first time, from 1252 to 1704 — about 18 generations. One after another, its doublings took 452 years, 161 years, 75 years and 43 years. The last one, 43 years, is shorter than a working life. By 2022 it stood at ×29.1 of its 1252 level; the next doubling, to ×32, is still under way.
The world, from 1820: 80 years, 61 years and 34 years. The next, to ×16 of the 1820 level, is not done yet — in 2022 the world stood at ×14.8.
The United Kingdom, from 1252World, from 1820
The doublings as a table
| Series | Multiple | Reached | Took | GDP per person |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| United Kingdom | ×2 | 1704 | 452 years | $2,778 |
| United Kingdom | ×4 | 1865 | 161 years | $5,333 |
| United Kingdom | ×8 | 1940 | 75 years | $10,928 |
| United Kingdom | ×16 | 1983 | 43 years | $21,366 |
| World | ×2 | about 1900 | 80 years | $2,255 |
| World | ×4 | about 1961 | 61 years | $4,511 |
| World | ×8 | about 1995 | 34 years | $9,022 |
More people, and each of them richer
In 1820 the world had 1.04B people; in 2022, 7.8B. Each of them produced, on average, ×14.8 as much. Together, world output grew ×111 — from $1.18T to $130T a year, in 2011 dollars.
People18201.04B20227.8B×7.5
GDP per person1820$1,1282022$16,677×14.8
World output, a year1820$1.18T2022$130T×111
From 1820 to 1870 the number of people grew 0.4% a year and income per person 0.6%. Both sped up later, and both peaked in the same period, 1950–1970: income per person grew 2.9% a year and population 1.9%. Since 2000: people 1.2% a year, income per person 2.4%.
PeopleGDP per person
Growth by period as a table
| Period | People | GDP per person | World output |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1820–1870 | 0.40% | 0.63% | 1.03% |
| 1870–1900 | 0.65% | 1.29% | 1.95% |
| 1900–1950 | 0.98% | 0.79% | 1.78% |
| 1950–1970 | 1.91% | 2.92% | 4.88% |
| 1970–2000 | 1.67% | 1.70% | 3.40% |
| 2000–2022 | 1.16% | 2.40% | 3.59% |
The Great Divergence — and the great convergence
In 1820 Asia — East, South and Southeast — produced 53% of world output; the West (Western Europe and the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand) 28%. By 1950 the West produced 57% of world output with 19% of the world's people, while Asia, with 53% of the people, produced 17%. Asia's share bottomed out in 1950 at 17%; by 2022 it was back to 44%, and the West's was down to 31%.
Historians call the first part the Great Divergence: industrial growth took hold in Western Europe and its offshoots long before it reached China or India. The second part, the convergence, shows when you switch the chart to people. In 1950 Asia's share of world output was 35 percentage points below its share of the world's people; in 2022, 10 points.
US, Canada, Australia, New ZealandWestern EuropeEastern Europe and the former USSRLatin AmericaAfrica south of the SaharaMiddle East and North AfricaSouth and Southeast AsiaEast Asia
Shares of world output by region as a table
| Region | 1820 | 1870 | 1950 | 1980 | 2022 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand | 2.4% | 11.1% | 30.9% | 24.4% | 17.5% |
| Western Europe | 25.8% | 32.6% | 26.1% | 24.0% | 13.6% |
| Eastern Europe and the former USSR | 8.1% | 11.2% | 13.1% | 11.7% | 6.5% |
| Latin America | 1.7% | 2.6% | 7.2% | 9.7% | 7.0% |
| Africa south of the Sahara | 6.1% | 4.6% | 2.8% | 2.4% | 3.1% |
| Middle East and North Africa | 2.7% | 2.6% | 2.8% | 4.9% | 8.6% |
| South and Southeast Asia | 20.0% | 14.4% | 8.3% | 7.5% | 16.4% |
| East Asia | 33.2% | 21.0% | 8.8% | 15.5% | 27.3% |
The United Kingdom against China and India
In 1000, by these estimates, the average person in China was a little better off than in the United Kingdom: the United Kingdom had 94% of China's income per person. By 1600 the United Kingdom had 1.4 times China's. The gap then widened for 361 years, to 16.2 times in 1961 (against India: 14.7 times in 1979). By 2022 it was down to 2.0 times China's and 4.9 times India's.
UK ÷ ChinaUK ÷ India
Who had the largest economy
Many people, not high incomes, made the largest economies of the past. In 1820 China produced 29% of world output and India 17% — together 45%. By 1950 their shares were down to 5% and 4%; China's low was 5.2% in 1950, India's 3.2% in 1980. In 2022 China produced 21% and India 8%. The United States, with 2.3% in 1820, had passed China by 1900 and peaked at 27% in 1950; in 2022 it produced 15%.
ChinaIndiaUSWestern Europe
The five largest economies, 1600–2022
Among the economies with estimates — only 15 for 1600, so the early rows rank those, not the world — the leaders were China (1600–1870), the United States (1900–2000) and China (2022). China topped 5 of the 9 rows. Not bad for a country whose income per person ranked 126th of 145 in 1950.
- 1600only 15 economies with estimates · GDP in 2011 dollars
- 1700only 17 economies with estimates · GDP in 2011 dollars
- 182056 economies with estimates · share of world output
- 1870
China17.2%
India11.0%
United States9.8%
United Kingdom9.3%- Russia / USSR7.2%
- 190046 economies with estimates · share of world output
- 1950
- United States27.4%
- Russia / USSR9.6%
- United Kingdom6.6%
- China5.2%
Germany5.0%
- 1980
- United States21.1%
- Russia / USSR8.5%
Japan7.8%- China5.9%
- Germany5.5%
- 2000166 economies with estimates · share of world output
- 2022166 economies with estimates · share of world output
Nine countries since 1820, on one scale
United Kingdom, United States, Germany, Japan, Russia, China, India, Brazil and Nigeria: GDP per person since 1820, with the world for reference. In 2022 the richest of the nine, the United States, had $58,487 a person; the poorest, Nigeria, $5,070 — 11.5 times less. Japan went from $3,062 in 1950 to $38,269 in 2022: ×12.5.
The countryWorld
Questions people ask
What was world GDP per person in the year 1?
The database has no world figure before 1820. For the year 1 it has estimates for 14 economies of the Mediterranean and the Middle East, from $886 to $1,407 a person in 2011 dollars (Italy the highest). The world as a whole had $1,128 in 1820 and $16,677 in 2022.
When was the Industrial Revolution?
Historians usually date it to about 1760–1840, starting in Britain. In the database's yearly series for the United Kingdom, income per person grew 0.32% a year in 1700–1760, 0.40% in 1760–1840 and 1.07% in 1840–1900. The revolution changed how things were made first; the faster rise in income per person came after it.
Which country had the largest economy in history?
In the years shown above, the leaders among the economies with estimates were China (1600–1870), the United States (1900–2000) and China (2022); China topped 5 of 9. That is at the database's 2011 purchasing-power prices; at market exchange rates the ranking can differ — see the largest economies article.
How fast has the world's population grown?
From 1.04B in 1820 to 7.8B in 2022 (×7.5, 1.0% a year), by the database's figures. The fastest growth was in 1950–1970: 1.9% a year. The UN's figures and projections to 2100 are on our world population page.
What are “2011 international dollars”?
One currency for every country and year: the database values each country's output at 2011 prices and converts it with purchasing power parities, so a dollar buys about the same everywhere. That is what makes 1820 and 2022, or China and the US, comparable. US prices rose ×1.49 from the 2011 average to Oct 2026, so the world's $16,677 would be about $24,900 in today's US dollars.
Go deeper
How the numbers are calculated
- Source: Maddison Project Database, version 2023, by Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (Groningen Growth and Development Centre, University of Groningen), licensed under CC BY 4.0. Citation: MPD version 2023: Bolt, Jutta and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024). Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update. Journal of Economic Surveys, 1–41, doi:10.1111/joes.12618. Shares, multiples, doubling times and growth rates are BigCapital's calculations.
- GDP per person is real GDP divided by the mid-year population, in 2011 international dollars: the database already adjusts for inflation and for price differences between countries, so this page has no inflation switch.
- Before 1820 there are estimates for 35 countries only: a few benchmark years from Angus Maddison's work and yearly series rebuilt from historical records. They are rough, and this page never adds them up into a world figure.
- World and regional figures are the database's own, from 1820; before 1950 some regions have no figure in some years.
- A country's GDP is its GDP per person × its people. Where an estimate for that very year is missing, it is read off a straight line (in logarithms) between estimates at most 15 years apart.
- Doubling times: for the UK, the first year its yearly series reached 2, 4, 8 … times the 1252 level; for the world, a straight line (in logarithms) between the database's years.
- Countries are in today's borders, as the database gives them. The USSR, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia stand for their lands until they split up; from 1992 (Czechoslovakia: 1993) their successor states count one by one, so nothing is counted twice.
- This is economic history, not a forecast and not investment advice.
Original sources of the estimates
The Maddison Project asks that all original papers be cited when its data is shown in charts. Here they are, as the database lists them: first the sources added since 2013, then Angus Maddison's own (2010).
Sources added since 2013
- GDP pc: 2008 - 2022: Total Economy Database the Conference Board for all countries included in TED. Otherwise UN national accounts statistics
- Population sources
- 1990 onward Total Economy Database the Conference Board for all countries included in TED. Otherwise UN national accounts statistics
- Argentina — 1800 - 1870: Prados de la Escosura, L. (2009). “Lost Decades? Economic Performance in Post-Independence Latin America,” Journal of Latin America Studies 41: 279–307 (updated data); 1870 - 1900: Bertola, L and Ocampo, J.A. (2012) The Economic Development of Latin America since Independence. Oxford, Oxford U.P
- Belgium — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 1500- 1846: Buyst, E. (2011), “Towards Estimates of Long Term Growth in the Southern Low Countries, ca.1500-1846”, Results presented at the Conference on Quantifying Long Run Economic Development, Venice, 22-24 March, 2011
- Bulgaria — 1892-1945: Ivanov, M. (2006). “Bulgarian National Income between 1892 and 1924,” Bulgarian National Discussion Papers DP/54/2006
- Bosnia and Herzegovina — 1952-2008: Milanovic (2011). Estimates provided to the Maddison-Project
- Bolivia (Plurinational State of) — 1846-1950: Herranz-Loncán, A. and Peres-Cajías (2016). “Bolivian GDP per capita since the mid-nineteenth century” Cliometrica 10: 99-128
- Brazil — 1800 - 1870: Prados de la Escosura, L. (2009). “Lost Decades? Economic Performance in Post-Independence Latin America,” Journal of Latin America Studies 41: 279–307 (updated data); 1850–1899: Barro, R.J. and J.F. Ursua, (2008). “Macroeconomic Crises since 1870” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 39(1 (Spring), pages 255-350
- Switzerland — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 1850-2011: Stohr, Christian (2016), Trading Gains: new estimates of Swiss GDP, 1851-2008. Economic History Working Papers, 245/2016. London School of Economics and Political Science, Economic History Department, London, UK
- Chile — 1810–2004: Díaz, J.B. Lüders, R. and Wagner, G. (2007) Economia Chilena 1810 - 2000, Producto total y sectorial una nueva mirada, Pontificia universidad Catolica de Chile, Insituto de Economia, Documeno de Trabajo no. 315
- China — 1000-1661: Broadberry, S.N., Guan, Hanhui and David Daokui Li (2018), “China, Europe and the Great Divergence: a Study in Historical National Accounting, 980-1850”, Journal of Economic History, 78, 4, 955-1000; 1661–1933: Broadberry, S.N., Guan, Hanhui and David Daokui Li (2018), “China, Europe and the Great Divergence: a Study in Historical National Accounting, 980-1850”, Journal of Economic History, 78, 4, 955-1000; 1661–1933: Xu, Y. Z. Shi, B. van Leeuwen, Y Ni, Z Zhang, and Y Ma, (2016) 'Chinese National Income, ca. 1661-1933', Australian Economic History Review 57(3), 368–393; 1952–2008: Wu, Harry X. (2014), “China’s growth and productivity performance debate revisited – Accounting for China’s sources of growth with a new data set” The Conference Board Economics Program Working Paper Series EWP#14-01.
- Colombia — 1800 - 1870: Prados de la Escosura, L. (2009). “Lost Decades? Economic Performance in Post-Independence Latin America,” Journal of Latin America Studies 41: 279–307 (updated data); 1870 - 1923: Bertola, L and Ocampo, J.A. (2012) The Economic Development of Latin America since Independence. Oxford, Oxford U.P.
- Czechoslovakia — 1993 -: Based on GDP and population data for their successor states
- Cuba — 1690–1895: Santamaria Garcia, A. (2005). Las Cuentas nacionales de Cuba, 1960 - 2005', mimeo; 1902–1958: Ward, M. and Devereux, J. (2012), “The Road Not Taken: Pre-Revolutionary Cuban Living Standards in Comparative Perspective” Journal of Economic History, 72(1): 104–132
- Germany — 1500-1850: Pfister, U. (2022). Economic Growth in Germany, 1500–1850. The Journal of Economic History, 82(4), 1071–1107
- Ecuador — 1833-1938: Prados de la Escosura, L. (2009). “Lost Decades? Economic Performance in Post-Independence Latin America,” Journal of Latin America Studies 41: 279–307. (updated data). We use the growth rate between 1933 and 1938 from Prados de la Escosura (2009) and link that to the 1939 level of Maddison’s original estimates.
- Egypt — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 700 – 1500: Pamuk, Ş. and M. Shatzmiller (2011). “Real Wages and GDP per capita in the Medieval Islamic Middle East in Comparative Perspective, 700-1500”, paper presented at the 9th Conference of the European Historical Economics Society, Dublin, September 2-3, 2011.; 1820, 1870, 1913, 1950: Pamuk, S. (2006), Estimating Economic Growth in the Middle East since 1820, The Journal of Economic History, vol 66, no. 3, pp. 809 - 828
- Spain — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 1270-1850: Álvarez-Nogal, C. and L. Prados de la Escosura (2013). "The Rise and Fall of Spain (1270-1850)," Economic History Review, 66, 1, 1-37, using their annual benchmarks; 1850–2011: Prados de la Escosura, L. (2017), Spanish Economic Growth, 1850-2015 (London: Palgrave Macmillan)
- Finland — 1600–1860: Eloranta, J., Voutilainen, M. and Nummela, I. (2016). “Estimating Finnish Economic Growth Before 1860” mimeo.
- France — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 1276–1800: Ridolfi, L., & Nuvolari, A. (2021). L’histoire immobile? A reappraisal of French economic growth using the demand-side approach, 1280–1850. European Review of Economic History, 25(3), 405–428
- United Kingdom — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 1252–1700 (England): Broadberry, S.N., B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015), British Economic Growth 1270-1870 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.; 1700–1870: Broadberry, S.N., B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015), British Economic Growth 1270-1870 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Ghana — 1885-1950: Broadberry, S., & Gardner, L. (2022). Economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1885–2008: Evidence from eight countries. Explorations in Economic History, 83, 101424.
- Greece — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 1833-1913: Kostelenos G., S. Petmezas, D. Vasiliou, E. Kounaris and M. Sfakianakis, (2007), "Gross Domestic Product 1830-1939", Sources of Economic History of Modern Greece: Quantitative data and statistical series 1830-1939, Historical Archives of the National Bank of Greece, Athens.
- Croatia — 1952-2008: Milanovic (2011). Estimates provided to the Maddison-Project
- Indonesia — 1815 – 1880 (Java): Van Zanden (2012). “Economic Growth in Java 1815-1939: The Reconstruction of the Historical National Accounts of a Colonial Economy”, Maddison-Project Working Paper WP-3.; 1880-2008: Van der Eng, P. (2010). The Sources of Long-Term Economic Growth in Indonesia, 1880-2008”, Explorations in Economic History, 47: 294-309
- India — 1600–1870: Broadberry, S.N., Custodis, J. and Gupta, B. (2015), “India and the great divergence: an Anglo-Indian comparison of GDP per capita, 1600–1871” Explorations in Economic History, 55: 58-75.
- Iran (Islamic Republic of) — 1820, 1870, 1913, 1950: Pamuk, S. (2006), Estimating Economic Growth in the Middle East since 1820, The Journal of Economic History, vol 66, no. 3, pp. 809 - 828
- Iraq — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 700 – 1500: Pamuk, Ş. and M. Shatzmiller (2011). “Real Wages and GDP per capita in the Medieval Islamic Middle East in Comparative Perspective, 700-1500”, paper presented at the 9th Conference of the European Historical Economics Society, Dublin, September 2-3, 2011.; 1820, 1870, 1913, 1950: Pamuk, S. (2006), Estimating Economic Growth in the Middle East since 1820, The Journal of Economic History, vol 66, no. 3, pp. 809 - 828
- Iceland — 1870-1945: Jonsson, G. (1998). The gross domestic product of Iceland, 1870-1945. Nordiska Historiska Nasjonalregnkaper, Artikkelsamling from Workshop IV, Solstrand 13-15 NOvember 1998.
- Israel — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91
- Italy — 1451-1861: Chilosi, D., & Ciccarelli, C. (2023). Italy in the Great Divergence: What Can We Learn from Engel’s Law (SSRN Scholarly Paper 4514091).; 1861-1871 (North Italy): Malanima, P. (2010), “The long decline of a leading economy: GDP in central and northern Italy, 1300–1913” European Review of Economic History 15 (2): 169–219.; 1871-1990: Baffigi, A. (2011).”Italian National Accounts, 1861-2011”, Banca d’Italia Economic History Working Papers 18.
- Jamaica — 1850 - 1938: Prados de la Escosura, L. (2009). “Lost Decades? Economic Performance in Post-Independence Latin America,” Journal of Latin America Studies 41: 279–307 (updated data)
- Jordan — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 1820, 1870, 1913, 1950: Pamuk, S. (2006), Estimating Economic Growth in the Middle East since 1820, The Journal of Economic History, vol 66, no. 3, pp. 809 - 828
- Japan — 724-1874: Bassino, Jean-Pascal & Broadberry, Stephen & Fukao, Kyoji & Gupta, Bishnupriya & Takashima, Masanori, (2018). "Japan and the Great Divergence, 730-1874," CEI Working Paper Series 2018-13, Center for Economic Institutions, Institute of Economic Research, Hitotsubashi University; 1874-1940: Fukao, K., Bassino, J.-P., Makino, T., Paprzycki, R., Settsu, T., Takashima, M., and Tokui, J. (2015) Regional Inequality and Industrial Structure in Japan: 1874-2008, Tokyo: Maruzen Publishing.
- Kenya — 1904-1950: Broadberry, S., & Gardner, L. (2022). Economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1885–2008: Evidence from eight countries. Explorations in Economic History, 83, 101424.
- Republic of Korea — 1911-1990: Cha, M.S., Kim, N.N., Park, K.-J., Park, Y. (Eds.) (2020), Historical Statistics of Korea. Studies in Economic History, New York: Springer Publishing
- Lebanon — 1820, 1870, 1913, 1950: Pamuk, S. (2006), Estimating Economic Growth in the Middle East since 1820, The Journal of Economic History, vol 66, no. 3, pp. 809 - 828
- Liberia — 1845-1950: Gardner, L. (2022). Sovereignty without Power: Liberia in the Age of Empires, 1822-1980. Cambridge University Press.
- Mexico — 1550–1812: Arroyo Abad, L. and J.L. van Zanden (2016), “Growth under Extractive Institutions? Latin American Per Capita GDP in Colonial Times” Journal of Economic History 76(4): 1182–1215.; 1812–1870: Prados de la Escosura, L., (2009), ‘Lost decades? Economic performance in post-independence Latin America’, Journal of Latin America Studies, 41, pp. 279–307. (updated data); 1870-1895: Bértola, L., & Ocampo, J. A. (2012). The Economic Development of Latin America since Independence. Oxford University Press, Table A.2; 1895–2003: Barro, R.J. and J.F. Ursua, (2008). “Macroeconomic Crises since 1870” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 39(1 (Spring), pages 255-350
- TFYR of Macedonia — 1952-2008: Milanovic (2011). Estimates provided to the Maddison-Project
- Montenegro — 1952-2008: Milanovic (2011). Estimates provided to the Maddison-Project
- Malawi — 1904-1950: Broadberry, S., & Gardner, L. (2022). Economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1885–2008: Evidence from eight countries. Explorations in Economic History, 83, 101424.
- Malaysia — 1900-1939: Nazrin Shah, S. (2017). Charting the Economy: Early 20th Century Malaya and Contemporary Malaysian Contrasts, Oxford University Press
- Nigeria — 1885-1950: Broadberry, S., & Gardner, L. (2022). Economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1885–2008: Evidence from eight countries. Explorations in Economic History, 83, 101424.
- Netherlands — 1348–1807 (Holland): Van Zanden, J. L. and van Leeuwen, B. (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49 (2012), pp. 119–30.; 1807-1913: Smits, J.P., E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000). The Measurement of Gross National Product and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre Monograph series no 5).
- Norway — 1820–1930: Grytten, O.H. (2015). Norwegian gross domestic product by industry 1830 - 1930, Norges Bank Working paper 19/2015. Population from Maddison (2006)
- Panama — 1906–1945: De Corso, G. (2013). El crecimiento economico de Venuzuela, Desde la Oligarquia Conservadora Hasta La Revolucion Bolivariana: 1830-2012. Uno Vision cuantitativa *: Venezuelan Economic Growth From The Conservative Oligarchy To The Bolivarian Revolution (1830-2012), Revista De Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History, 31(3), 321-357. doi:10.1017/S0212610913000190
- Peru — 1600–1812: Arroyo Abad, L. and J.L. van Zanden (2016), “Growth under Extractive Institutions? Latin American Per Capita GDP in Colonial Times” Journal of Economic History 76(4): 1182–1215.; 1812–1870: Seminario, B. (2015). El Desarrallo de la Economía Peruana en la Era Moderna, Universidad de Pacifico, Lima; 1870-1901: Bertola, L and Ocampo, J.A. (2012) The Economic Development of Latin America since Independence. Oxford, Oxford U.P, Table A2
- Poland — 1409–1913: Malinowski, M. and Van Zanden (2017), “National income and its distribution in preindustrial Poland in a global perspective” Cliometrica, Volume 11, Issue 3, pp 375–40
- D.P.R. of Korea — 1911-1940: Cha, M.S., Kim, N.N., Park, K.-J., Park, Y. (Eds.) (2020), Historical Statistics of Korea. Studies in Economic History, New York: Springer Publishing.; 1990-2011: Cha, M.S., Kim, N.N., Park, K.-J., Park, Y. (Eds.) (2020), Historical Statistics of Korea. Studies in Economic History, New York: Springer Publishing.
- Portugal — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 1530–1850: Palma, N., & Reis, J. (2019). From Convergence to Divergence: Portuguese Economic Growth, 1527–1850. The Journal of Economic History, 79(2), 477-506. doi:10.1017/S0022050719000056
- Romania — 1862–1995: Axenciuc, V. (2012). Produsul intern brut al Romaniei, Vol. 1, Institutl de Economie Nationala, Bucarest; 1915-1919 & 1949: Voinea, L., Cojocaru, A., Costache, B., Grigoraș, V., Lovin, H., Neagu, C., Orțan, D., & Tănase, A. (2019). One Hundred Years of Honesty: Recovering the Lost Memory of the Romanian Economy 1918-2018.
- Russia — 1860-1885: Kuboniwa, M. (2019). Estimating GDP and Foreign Rents of the Oil and Gas Sector in the Soviet Union and Present-Day Russia. In M. Kuboniwa, Y. Nakamura, K. Kumo, & Y. Shida (Eds.), Russian Economic Development over Three Centuries: New Data and Inferences (pp. 421–438). Springer.
- Saudi Arabia — 1820, 1870, 1913, 1950: Pamuk, S. (2006), Estimating Economic Growth in the Middle East since 1820, The Journal of Economic History, vol 66, no. 3, pp. 809 - 828
- Singapore — 1900–1959: Sugimoto, I. (2011), Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations, Economic Growth Centre Research Monograph ser., 2, http://www.worldscibooks.com/economics/7858.html (accessed on 30 Jan. 2013).
- Serbia — 1952-2008: Milanovic (2011). Estimates provided to the Maddison-Project
- Former USSR — 1860-1885: Kuboniwa, M. (2019). Estimating GDP and Foreign Rents of the Oil and Gas Sector in the Soviet Union and Present-Day Russia. In M. Kuboniwa, Y. Nakamura, K. Kumo, & Y. Shida (Eds.), Russian Economic Development over Three Centuries: New Data and Inferences (pp. 421–438). Springer.; 1885-1913: Gregory, P. R. (1982). Russian National Income, 1885–1913, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1913-1928: Markevich, A. and M. Harrison (2011). “Great War, Civil War, and Recovery: Russia's National Income, 1913 to 1928”, The Journal of Economic History, Volume 71 (3): 672 – 703, table 6.; 1991 -: Based on GDP and population data for their successor states
- Slovenia — 1952-2008: Milanovic (2011). Estimates provided to the Maddison-Project
- Sweden — 1300–1560: Krantz, O. (2017) “Swedish GDP 1300-1560 A Tentative Estimate” Lund Papers in Economic History: General Issues; No. 152.; 1560–1950: Schön, L., and O. Krantz (2015) “New Swedish Historical National Accounts since the 16th Century in Constant and Current Prices” Lund Papers in Economic History no. 140
- Syrian Arab Republic — 1820, 1870, 1913, 1950: Pamuk, S. (2006), Estimating Economic Growth in the Middle East since 1820, The Journal of Economic History, vol 66, no. 3, pp. 809 - 828
- Turkey — 1: Scheidel, W. and Friesen, S. J., ‘The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), pp. 61–91; 700 - 1820: Pamuk, Ş. and M. Shatzmiller (2011). “Real Wages and GDP per capita in the Medieval Islamic Middle East in Comparative Perspective, 700-1500”, paper presented at the 9th Conference of the European Historical Economics Society, Dublin, September 2-3, 2011; Milanovic, B. (2006), “An estimate of average income and inequality in Byzantium around year 1000,” Review of Income and Wealth 52 (3).; 1500-1820: Pamuk, S. (2009). “Estimating GDP per capita for the Ottoman Empire in a European Comparative Framework, 1500-1820”, paper presented at the XVth World Economic History Congress, August 2009, Utrecht
- Taiwan, Province of China — 1820 - 1940: Fukao, K., D. Ma and T. Yuan (2007). Real GDP in Pre-War East Asia: A 1934-36 Benchmark Purchasing Power Parity Comparison with the U.S. Review of Income and Wealth, 53 (3): 503 - 537. Trend from original Maddison estimates applied to benchmark for 1934/36
- Uganda — 1906-1950: Broadberry, S., & Gardner, L. (2022). Economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1885–2008: Evidence from eight countries. Explorations in Economic History, 83, 101424.
- Uruguay — 1800-1870: Prados de la Escosura, L. (2009). “Lost Decades? Economic Performance in Post-Independence Latin America,” Journal of Latin America Studies 41: 279–307. (updated data); 1870–2014: Bèrtola, L. (2016). El PIB per Capita de Uruguay 1870 - 2016: una reconstruccion. PHES working paper No 48
- United States — 1650 - 1790: McCusker, John J., ‘Colonial Statistics’, Historical Statistics of the United States: Earliest Time to the Present, in S. B. Carter, S. S. Gartner, M. R. Haineset al. New York, Cambridge University Press. V-671.; 1790 - 1870: Sutch, R. (2006). National Income and Product. Historical Statistics of the United States: Earliest Time to the Present, in S. B. Carter, S. S. Gartner, M. R. Haineset al. New York, Cambridge University Press III-23-25.; 1800-1830: Prados de la Escosura, L. (2009). “Lost Decades? Economic Performance in Post-Independence Latin America,” Journal of Latin America Studies 41: 279–307. (updated data)
- Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) — 1830–2012: De Corso, G. (2013). El crecimiento economico de Venuzuela, Desde la Oligarquia Conservadora Hasta La Revolucion Bolivariana: 1830-2012. Uno Vision cuantitativa *: Venezuelan Economic Growth From The Conservative Oligarchy To The Bolivarian Revolution (1830-2012), Revista De Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History, 31(3), 321-357. doi:10.1017/S0212610913000190
- Former Yugoslavia — 1952-2008: Milanovic (2011). Estimates provided to the Maddison-Project; 2008 -: Based on GDP and population data for their successor states
- South Africa — 1700–1900 (Cape Colony): Fourie, J. and Van Zanden, J.L. (2013). GDP in the Dutch Cape Colony: the Nationals Accounts of a Slave-Based Society, South African Journal of Economics, vol. 81 (4): 467 - 490
- Zambia — 1906-1950: Broadberry, S., & Gardner, L. (2022). Economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1885–2008: Evidence from eight countries. Explorations in Economic History, 83, 101424.
- Zimbabwe — 1914-1950: Broadberry, S., & Gardner, L. (2022). Economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1885–2008: Evidence from eight countries. Explorations in Economic History, 83, 101424.
Angus Maddison's original sources (2010)
- Argentina — 1900-1913: Unpublished annual estimates supplied by ECLA/CONADE. and quinquennial averages published in El Desarrollo Económico de la Argentina, ECLA, Mexico, 1959, p. 15;; 1913-1950: IEERAL, "Estadísticas de la evolución económica de Argentina, 1913-84", Estudios, Buenos Aires, July-September, 1986.
- Australia — 1820-1828: Butlin, N.G. 'Our 200 Years', Queesland Calendar, 1988; 1828-1860: N.G. Butlin, "Contours of the Australian Economy 1788-1860", Australian Economic Review, Sept. 1986, pp. 112-13;; 1861-1938/9: N.G. Butlin, Australian Domestic Product, Investment and Foreign Borrowing 1861-1938/9, Cambridge, 1962,pp.460-1; amdended as indicated in N.G. Butlin, Investment in Australian Economic Development 1861-19000, Cambridge, 1964, p. 453 and with revised deflator shown in M.W. Butlin, A Preliminary Annual Databae 1900/1901 to 1973/1974, Discussion Paper 7701, Reserve Bank of Australia, 1977, p. 41; 1938/9-1950: from expenditure aggregates in 1966/7 prices in M.W. Butlin, RS/FLW/, p.85.
- Austria — 1830-1913: Kausel, "Oster-reichs Volkseinkommen 1830 bis 1913" in Geschichte und Ergebnisse der zentralen amtlichen Statistik in Österreich 1829-1979, Beitrage zur österreichischen Statistik, Heft 550, Vienna, 1979, pp. 692-3.; 1913-50: A. Kausel, N. Nemeth, and H. Seidel, "Oster-reichs Volkseinkommen, 1913-63", Monatsberichte des Osterreichischen Institutes für Wirtschaftsforschung, 14th Sonderheft, Vienna, August 1965, p. 38 and 42;
- Belgium — 1846-1913: J. Gadisseur, "Contribution à l'étude de la production agricole en Belgique de 1846 à 1913", Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine, vol. IV, 1-2, 1973,; 1913-1950: C. Carbonnelle, "Recherches sur levolution de la production en Belgique de 1900à 1957", Cahiers Economiques de Bruxelles, no. 3, April 1959, p. 358.
- Bangladesh — 1900-1950: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995
- Brazil — 1900-1950: A. Maddison and Associates, The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity and Growth: Brazil and Mexico, Oxford University Press, New York 1992;
- Canada — 1820-1850: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995; 1851-70: O.J. Firestone, "Canada's Changing Economy in the Second Half of the 19th Century", NBER, New York, 1957, processed, amended for 1820–70 to include income of the indigenous population (taken to be $400 per capita in 1820 and 1870); 1870-1926: M.C. Urquart and Associates, ed., Gross National Product, Canada 1870-1926: The Derivation of the Estimates, McGill Queen's University Press, Montreal, 1993, pp. 11-12 and 24-5,; 1926-1950: Statistics Canada, National Income and Expenditure Accounts, vol. 1, The Annual Estimates 1926-1974, Ottawa, 1975, p. 323. 1960 onwards from OECD, National Accounts.
- Colombia — 1929 - 1950: CEPAL, Series Historicas del Crecimiento de America Latina, Santiago, 1978
- Czechoslovakia — 1820-1913: A. Kausel, "Österreichs Volkseinkommen 1830 bis 1913", in "Geschichte und Ergebnisse der zentralen amtlichen Statistik in Österreich 1829-1979", Beiträge zum Osterreichischen Statistik, 550, Vienna, 1979.; 1913-37: F.L. Pryor, Z.P. Pryor, M. Stadnik, and G.J. Staller "Czechoslovakia Aggregate Production in the Inter-war Period", Review of Income and Wealth, March 1971, p.36.; 1937-50: G. Lazarcik, "Czechoslovak Gross National Product by Sector of Origin and Final Use, 1937, and 1948-65"", Occasional Paper 26, Research Project on National Income in East Central Europe, New York, 1969.
- Denmark — 1820-1947: S.A. Hansen, Okonomisk vaekst i Danmark, vol. II, Institute of Economic History, Copenhagen, 1974, pp. 229-32; 1947-50: Soren Larsen, "Reviderede tidsserier for produktionsvaerdi og bruttofaktorindkomst for perioden 1947- 65", CBS, Copenhagen, 1992, mimeographed.
- Germany — 1850-1950: Hoffmann, Grumbach and Hesse, op. cit., pp. 454-5.
- Finland — 1860-1960: R. Hjerppe, The Finnish Economy 1860-1985: Growth and Structural Change, Bank of Finland, Helsinki, 1989, pp. 198-200.
- France — 1850-1913: Toutain, Le Produit interieur de la France de 1789 a 1982, Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 1987; 1920-1950: Toutain, Le Produit interieur de la France de 1789 a 1982, Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 1987
- United Kingdom — 1870-1950: C.H. Feinstein, National Income Expenditure and Output of the United Kingdom 1855-1965, Cambridge, 1972
- Greece — 1913-1929: C. Clark, Conditions of Economic Progress, 3rd edition, Macmillan, London, 1957; 1929-38 GNP at factor cost from Ekonomikos Tachydromos, 22 May 1954; 1938-50 from OEEC, Europe and the World Economy, Paris 1960, p.116.; 1929-1950: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995
- Hungary — 1870-1913: L. Katus, "Economic Growth in Hungary during the Age of Dualism (1867-1913)" in E. Pemlenyi, ed., Social Economic Research in the History of East Central Europe, Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, 1970, p.108 and J. Komlos, The Habsburg Monarchy as a Customs Union, Princeton, 1983, pp. 291-3; 1900-42: A. Eckstein, "National Income and Capital Formation in Hungary, 1900-50", in S. Kuznets, ed., Income and Wealth, series V GNP index, Bowes and Bowes, London, 1955, p. 175; 1938-50: from L. Czirjak, "Hungarian GNP by Sectors of Origin of Product and End Uses, 1938 and 1946-67", Occasional Paper 43, Research Project on East Central Europe, New York, 1973.
- India — 1870-1900: A. Heston, "National Income", in D. Kumar and M. Desai, Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 2, Cambridge, 1983, p. 397.; 1900-46: A. Maddison, "Alternative Estimates of the Real Product of India, 1900-46", Indian Economic and Social History Review, 22, 2, 1985.; 1946-50: A. Maddison, Class Structure and Economic Growth: India and Pakistan Since the Moghuls, Allen and Unwin, London, 1971, p. 169.
- Ireland — 1820, 1870, 1913: MPD 2013, Bolt and Van Zanden, 2014, The Maddison Project: collaborative research on historical national accounts. The Economic History Review, 67(3), 627–651; 1913-1926: P. Deane (1968), and Feinstein, 1972; 1926-1950: K.A. Kennedy, Productivity and Industrial Growth: The Irish Experience, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 3.
- Republic of Korea — 1820, 1870: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995
- Myanmar — 1901-1938: "Trends of Economic Growth and Income Distribution in Burma 1870-1940", Journal of the Burma Research Society, 1964, p. 144; 1938-1950: E.E. Hagen, On the Theory of Social Change, Dorsey, Homewood, Illinois, 1962, Table 18-1,
- Netherlands — 1913-1950: C.A. van Bochove and T.A. Huitker, "Main National Accounting Series, 1900-1986", CBS Occasional Paper, No. 17, The Hague, 1987.
- Norway — 1930-1950: Central Bureau of Statistics Norway, 1970 and Maddison, A. Monintoring the World Economy, 1995
- New Zealand: — 1870-1939: K. Rankin, "New Zealand's Gross National Product: 1859-1939, Review of Income and Wealth, March 1992, pp. 60-1., 1870 amended to include indigenous population (taken to be $400 per capita); 1939-50: C. Clark, The Conditions of Economic Progress, third edition, Macmillan, London, 1957, pp. 171-2
- Peru — 1900-1913: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995; 1913-1941: C.A. Bolona Behr, "Tariff Policies in Peru, 1880-1980", Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1981;; 1942-1950: "Cuadros del producto interno bruto en dollares de 1950", CEPAL, Santiago, October 1962, mimeographed;; 1945-1950: Series Historicas del Crecimiento de America Latina, CEPAL, Santiago, 1978.
- Philippines — 1820-1900: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995; 1900-1950: R.W. Hooley, "Long Term Growth of the Philippine Economy, 1902-1961", , The Philippine Economic Journal, First Semester, 1968.
- Poland — 1913-1929: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995; 1929-1938: K. Laski, Akumulacja i spozycie w procesie uprzemyslowienia Polski Ludowej, Ksiazka i Wiedza, Warsaw, 1956, pp. 86-90; 1937-1950: T.P. Alton (1970), p. 46,
- Portugal — 1850-1913: Pedro Lains, "How Far Can We Go? Measuring Portuguese Economic Growth (1850-1913)"; 1938-1950: R. Janes Cartado and N.E. Sequeira da Rosa, Series Longas as Contas Nacionais Portuguesas 1958-1985, Banco de Portugal, Lisbon,
- Former USSR — 1928-40: R. Moorsteen and R.P. Powell, The Soviet Capital Stock 1928-1962, Irwin, Illinois, 1966, p. 361; 1945-50: R. Moorsteen and R.P. Powell, The Soviet Capital Stock 1928-1962, Irwin, Illinois, 1966, p. 362; 1950-90: CIA
- Thailand — 1820-1900: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995; 1900-50: Sompop Manarungsan, "Economic Development of Thailand, 1850-1950", University of Groningen, Ph. D. thesis, 1989
- Turkey — 182, 1870: Maddison, A. Monitoring the World Economy, 1995; 1923-48: T. Bulutay, Y.S. Tezel and N. Yielderim, Turkiye Milli Geliri 1923-1948, Ankara, 1974.
- United States — 1820-1950: GDP movement from Maddison (1995a), amended for 1820–70 to include income of the indigenous population (taken to be $400 per capita in 1820 and 1870).
- Former Yugoslavia — 1870-1909: Maddison, A. The World Economy, a Millenial Perspective, OECD, 2001; 1909-12: I. Vinski, "National Product and Fixed Assets in the Territory of Yugoslavia 1900-59" , in P. Deane, ed., Income and Wealth, Series IX, Bowes and Bowes, London, 1961, p. 221; 1920-39: I. Vinski, "National Product and Fixed Assets in the Territory of Yugoslavia 1900-59" , in P. Deane, ed., Income and Wealth, Series IX, Bowes and Bowes, London, 1961, p. 222; 1947-52: I. Vinski, "National Product and Fixed Assets in the Territory of Yugoslavia 1900-59" , in P. Deane, ed., Income and Wealth, Series IX, Bowes and Bowes, London, 1961, p. 223